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在饮用水和污水处理系统中,往往采用氯化处理或者紫外辐射来灭活病原体以及控制介水疾病的爆发[1 − 2]. 水中的天然有机质或者污染物在此过程中不可避免地发生转化,生成消毒副产物,对水环境和人体健康构成潜在威胁[3]. 因此,近年发展出多种基于紫外光的水处理高级氧化技术,例如紫外/过氧化氢、紫外/臭氧、紫外/氯等,以期提高污染物去除效率,降低消毒副产物的生成[4]. 其中紫外/氯体系是将含氯水体经紫外辐射产生·OH和·Cl,而后经过自由基链传递反应生成·ClO、·Cl2−、·O−、·HOCl−等多种活性反应物种. 这些不同的活性自由基在紫外/氯体系中能够有效地降解水中的各种污染物. 相比于中性条件,在酸性条件(pH < 4.0)时,紫外/氯体系中产生的·OH和·Cl等活性自由基浓度相对更高,且活性氯自由基占比更大,对化合物的降解效果更好[5 − 6]. 碱性条件下的紫外/氯体系,·ClO的占比提升,而·OH和·Cl明显减少[7]. 因此,研究这些活性自由基在紫外/氯体系中的作用机制是十分必要的.
在紫外/氯体系的实验研究中,大多采用探针物质如硝基苯、对氯苯甲酸等,基于自由基的基元反应来计算目标物与各自由基的二级反应速率常数[8 − 9]. 其中,硝基苯和对氯苯甲酸由于与其他自由基反应活性较低,常用来当作·OH的探针物质[7,10 − 11];而由于苯甲酸与硝基苯在紫外/氯体系中反应速率的不同,通常采用这两种物质联用来作为·Cl的探针物质[12 − 13]. Lei等研究测定了多种探针化合物和·OH、·SO4−以及·Cl等活性物种之间的反应动力学数据,提出了探针化合物的准确性与淬灭剂剂量之间的联系[14]. 此外,在基于自由基稳态浓度的假设前提下,根据不同的基元反应方程,可以建立不同的数学模型来预测紫外/氯体系中的反应动力学方程[15 − 18]. Minakata等以线性自由能关系为基础,可以模拟水体中紫外/氯体系产生的多种无机自由基的反应活性,研究表明加成与抽氢是主要的反应方式[19]. 作为紫外/氯体系的研究基础,探针化合物与活性自由基之间的反应更为复杂,需要进一步明确其反应机理,从而可以更准确地确定探针化合物的使用范围.
环境理论化学是近年来快速发展的交叉学科. 量子化学基于分子中原子的电子波函数进行计算,可以模拟优化化合物的分子状态,分析其结构信息和电荷分布等基本性质,从而揭示化合物的物理化学性质并预测其环境行为. 例如通过理论计算化学,可以解释有机污染物在大气环境中的自由基反应、水环境中的水解反应等反应机理[20 − 23]. 通过非周期性体系问题的计算,明确污染物受活性物种(自由基、氧化剂和还原剂等)攻击的反应机理[24]. 因此,本文采取量子化学计算方法,研究了硝基苯、苯甲酸和对氯苯甲酸与紫外/氯体系中生成的3种主要自由基·OH、·ClO和·Cl的反应机制,以期为紫外/氯高级氧化技术的实际应用研究提供理论基础.
基于理论化学计算研究探针物质在紫外/氯体系中的反应机理
Quantum chemical study on reaction mechanism of reactive radical mediated probe compounds degradation in the UV/chlorine process
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摘要: 紫外/氯体系是将氯化消毒与紫外线辐射相结合的一种水处理高级氧化技术. 硝基苯、苯甲酸和对氯苯甲酸常被作为探针化合物,广泛用于研究紫外/氯体系中生成的羟基自由基(·OH)和活性氯自由基(·ClO和·Cl等). 采用理论化学计算的方法研究了硝基苯、苯甲酸和对氯苯甲酸与紫外/氯体系中生成的3种主要自由基·OH、·ClO和·Cl的反应机理. 在酸性条件下(pH <4.0),硝基苯、苯甲酸和对氯苯甲酸与·OH、·ClO和·Cl的反应包括抽氢反应、加成反应和单电子转移反应. ·OH与3种探针化合物反应的ΔG0,≠分别为7.7—20.1 kcal·mol−1、5.6—10.1 kcal·mol−1和5.2—12.4 kcal·mol−1. ·ClO与3种化合物的ΔG0,≠则相对较高为11.8—25.1 kcal·mol−1. ·Cl 引发的反应中,与硝基苯(10.3—14.1 kcal·mol−1)和对氯苯甲酸反应能垒较高(10.2—12.4 kcal·mol−1),与苯甲酸则反应能垒较低(5.4—11.9 kcal·mol−1),其中单电子转移反应起重要作用. 因此在紫外/氯体系中,起主要反应的是·OH,·ClO作用较小,·Cl的贡献则主要体现在抽氢反应和单电子转移反应中,这与在中性条件下的反应机理相吻合. 总体而言,对于探针化合物的不同形态,其反应速率的顺序为负离子态>分子态>正离子态. 本文的研究结果为探究紫外/氯体系当中各种自由基的反应机理提供了数据支撑.Abstract: The UV/chlorine process, by combining chlorination with UV irradiation, has been recently considered as a highly efficient advanced oxidation process in water treatment. Nitrobenzene (NB), benzoic acid (BA) and p-chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA) are widely used as model probe compounds in UV/chlorine system to investigate the second-order rate constants of specific radical-reaction with target contaminants by a competitive kinetics method. Here we evaluated the radical mediated reaction kinetics and mechanisms of NB, BA and pCBA in UV/chlorine process at pH<4.0 by theoretical calculations. The main reactive radicals ·OH, ·ClO and ·Cl in UV/chlorine process for the reaction with NB, BA and pCBA can be explained by H-abstraction, addition pathways and electron transfer reaction. The ΔG0,≠ values for ·OH reaction with NB, BA and pCBA were in the range of 7.7—20.1 kcal·mol−1, 5.6—10.1 kcal·mol−1 and 5.2—12.4 kcal·mol−1, respectively. The ΔG0,≠ values for ·ClO reactions with these three probe compounds were in the range of 11.8—25.1 kcal·mol−1, which were higher than those of ·OH. The ΔG0,≠ values for ·Cl reactions with NB and pCBA were in the range of 10.3—14.1 kcal·mol−1 and 10.2—12.4 kcal·mol−1. As for BA, the ΔG0,≠ values were in the range of 5.4—15.7 kcal·mol−1 due to the dominant role of the electron transfer reaction. This is consistent with the results under neutral conditions. For the different forms of probe compounds, the order of reaction rates is as follows: anionic form > molecular form > cationic form. The results of this study provided some basic data for investigations into the reaction kinetics and mechanisms of reactive radicals in UV/chlorine process.
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Key words:
- UV/Chlorine /
- probe compounds /
- quantum chemistry.
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表 1 不同泛函计算相对势能(ΔE0,kcal·mol−1)与M06-2X/6-311+G(3df,2pd)计算优化结果对比
Table 1. Relative potential energy (ΔE0, kcal·mol−1) calculated by different functionals at 6-311+G(3df,2pd) level based on the optimized geometries from M06-2X/6-311+G(d,p) and compared with the results that optimized at M06-2X/6-311+G(3df,2pd) level
反应路径 1)
PathwaysB3LYP M06-2X ωB97 M06-2X opt B3LYP M06-2X ωB97 M06-2X opt ΔE0,≠/(kcal·mol−1) ΔE0/(kcal·mol−1) NB+_OH_C6_A 22.4 21.3 23.2 20.6 3.5 3.4 4.3 3.7 NB+_ClO_C3_A 10.6 12.2 12.5 12.2 −4.9 −1.5 −3.2 −2.5 NB+_Cl_C1_H 11.1 13.0 12.4 13.5 10.1 9.2 12.2 8.9 BA_OH_C1_A 5.7 4.9 6.2 4.7 −17.4 −13.8 −20.4 −13.1 BA_ClO_C1_A 13.5 10.7 14.1 9.7 −5.1 −2.6 −0.7 −1.6 BA_Cl_C3_H 19.9 16.4 20.4 17.2 10.2 9.8 10.8 9.1 pCBA_OH_C6_H 6.8 5.6 10.5 5.2 −10.9 −14.3 −12.4 −12.2 pCBA_ClO_C3_A 10.7 13.8 14.7 13.9 5.7 3.3 1.2 2.4 pCBA_Cl_C2_H 17.3 13.2 17.6 12.5 15.8 12.1 13.6 11.1 1) 反应路径为硝基苯、苯甲酸和对氯苯甲酸分别与3种自由基在不同位点的反应. 其中A代表加成反应,H代表抽氢反应.
1) Pathways mean that NB, BA and pCBA reacted with ·OH, ·ClO and ·Cl at different sites. A means radical addition pathway as well as H means hydrogen abstraction pathway.表 2 3种化合物各位点与·OH的吉布斯自由能垒(ΔG0,≠,kcal·mol−1),吉布斯自由能变(ΔG0,kcal·mol−1)以及速率常数(ki,mol·L−1·s−1)
Table 2. Free energy barriers (ΔG0,≠, kcal·mol−1), reaction free energy (ΔG0, kcal·mol−1) and calculated rate constants (ki, mol·L−1·s−1) for NB+, BA and pCBA reaction with ·OH
反应位点
Sites·OH与NB+加成反应
·OH-addition of NB+ with ·OH·OH与NB+抽氢反应
H-abstraction of NB+ with ·OHΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki ΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki C1 16.9 −13.8 8.9 × 10 7.7 −6.2 1.3 × 109 C2 19.2 5.1 1.8 11.2 −18.1 3.4 × 106 C3 13.9 −10.8 1.4 × 104 11.5 −20.5 2.1 × 106 C4 20.1 −22.9 4.0 × 10−1 C5 13.5 −11.4 2.7 × 104 12.8 −19.7 2.3 × 105 C6 19.7 5.2 7.9 × 10−1 11.6 −20.9 1.8 × 106 ·OH与BA加成反应
·OH-addition of BA with ·OH·OH与BA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of BA with ·OHC1 7.9 −10.9 3.5× 108 6.4 −6.1 9.9 × 109 C2 9.2 −7.2 3.9× 107 8.0 −3.0 6.7 × 108 C3 10.1 −10.7 8.5× 106 5.6 −7.1 3.8 × 1010 C4 10.0 −4.5 1.0 × 107 C5 8.6 −11.3 1.1 × 108 5.9 −5.9 2.3 × 1010 C6 7.7 −8.8 4.9 × 108 7.4 −4.4 1.8 × 109 ·OH与pCBA加成反应
·OH-addition of pCBA with ·OH·OH与pCBA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of pCBA with ·OHC1 12.4 −11.8 1.8 × 105 C2 8.8 −8.2 7.6 × 107 5.6 −4.2 4.3 × 1010 C3 11.4 −9.4 9.5 × 105 5.9 −4.6 2.6 × 1010 C4 9.4 −5.0 2.8 × 107 C5 10.4 −10.6 5.4 × 106 5.2 −5.8 8.5 × 1010 C6 9.2 −7.9 3.9 × 107 5.5 −4.0 5.1 × 1010 表 3 3种化合物各位点与·ClO的吉布斯自由能垒(ΔG0,≠,kcal·mol−1),吉布斯自由能变(ΔG0,kcal·mol−1)以及速率常数(ki,mol·L−1·s−1)
Table 3. Free energy barriers (ΔG0,≠ , kcal·mol−1), reaction free energy (ΔG0, kcal·mol−1) and calculated rate constants (ki, mol·L−1·s−1) for NB+, BA and pCBA reaction with ·ClO
反应位点
Sites·ClO与NB+加成反应
Addition of NB+ with ·ClO·ClO与NB+抽氢反应
H-abstraction of NB+ with ·ClOΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki ΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki C1 15.4 −2.8 1.1× 103 22.1 13.5 2.7 × 10−2 C2 21.3 15.3 5.3 × 10−2 23.5 14.7 2.6 × 10−3 C3 12.4 −1.4 1.8 × 105 24.7 5.8 3.4 × 10−4 C4 25.1 −19.7 8.8 × 10−5 C5 12.2 −1.1 2.5 × 105 23.9 4.7 1.3 × 10−3 C6 20.9 17.2 1.0 × 10−1 24.5 15.1 4.7 × 10−4 ·ClO与BA加成反应
Addition of BA with ·ClO·ClO与BA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of BA with ·ClOC1 13.2 1.8 4.6 × 104 11.8 10.7 9.5 × 105 C2 13.7 4.6 2.0 × 104 13.4 10.2 6.4 × 104 C3 14.3 4.1 7.1 × 103 14.8 7.9 6.0 × 103 C4 15.5 8.7 9.4 × 102 C5 14.0 4.3 1.2 × 104 14.5 9.7 9.9 × 103 C6 13.0 3.8 6.4 × 104 14.2 13.7 1.6 × 104 ·ClO与pCBA加成反应
Addition of pCBA with ·ClO·ClO与pCBA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of pCBA with ·ClOC1 15.6 −0.7 7.9 × 102 C2 12.5 5.1 1.5 × 105 14.7 12.8 7.1 × 103 C3 13.7 3.8 2.0 × 104 15.8 9.5 1.1 × 103 C4 14.6 8.8 4.3 × 103 C5 13.3 3.6 3.8 × 104 14.2 9.4 1.6 × 104 C6 12.3 3.8 2.1 × 105 17.6 11.1 5.4 × 10 表 4 3种化合物各位点与·Cl的吉布斯自由能垒(ΔG0,≠,kcal·mol−1),吉布斯自由能变(ΔG0,kcal·mol−1)以及速率常数(ki,mol·L−1·s−1)
Table 4. Free energy barriers (ΔG0,≠ , kcal·mol−1), reaction free energy (ΔG0, kcal·mol−1) and calculated rate constants (ki, mol·L−1·s−1) for NB+, BA and pCBA reaction with ·Cl
反应位点
Sites·Cl与NB+抽氢反应
H-abstraction of NB+ with ·Cl·Cl与BA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of BA with ·Cl·Cl与pCBA抽氢反应
H-abstraction of pCBA with ·ClΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki ΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki ΔG0,≠ ΔG0 ki C1 14.1 7.4 9.2 × 103 5.4 3.2 2.1 × 1010 C2 10.5 6.0 4.0 × 106 10.4 9.5 4.7 × 106 10.2 7.3 6.6 × 106 C3 15.1 8.4 1.7 × 103 11.9 8.7 3.7 × 105 12.4 8.4 1.6 × 105 C5 15.7 8.1 6.2 × 102 10.3 9.4 5.6 × 106 10.9 8.9 2.0 × 106 C6 10.3 6.7 5.6 × 106 10.4 10.0 4.7 × 106 10.2 7.6 6.6 × 106 表 5 酸性条件下紫外/氯体系中3种化合物(NB+,BA和pCBA)分别与3种自由基的单电子转移反应能垒(ΔG0,≠,kcal·mol−1)及反应速率常数k(mol·L−1·s−1)
Table 5. Free energy barriers (ΔG0,≠ , kcal·mol−1) and the theoretical calculated rate constants (k, mol·L−1·s−1) for the electron transfer reaction between reactive radicals and three compounds (NB+, BA and pCBA )in UV/chlorine process at pH < 4.0
化合物
Compounds·OH ·ClO ·Cl ΔG0,≠ ki ΔG0,≠ ki ΔG0,≠ ki NB 10.8 1.9 × 106 17.6 1.9 × 10 11.3 8.1 × 105 BA 7.4 5.8 × 108 12.3 1.5 × 105 5.8 8.6 × 109 pCBA 8.3 1.3 × 108 13.1 3.9 × 104 8.2 1.5 × 108 表 6 酸性及中性条件下3种化合物分别与3种自由基的反应速率常数以及总反应速率常数kCP-OH,kCP-ClO和kCP-Cl
Table 6. The theoretical calculated rate constants (k, mol·L−1·s−1) for reactive radicals-initiated reactions of nitrobenzene (NB+), benzoic acid (BA) and p-chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA) in UV/chlorine process at pH < 4.0 and pH = 7.0
化合物
CompoundspH < 4.0 pH = 7.0 1) kCP-OH kCP-ClO kCP-Cl kCP-OH kCP-ClO kCP-Cl NB 1.3 × 109 4.3 × 105 1.0 × 107 1.7 × 1011 2.6 × 107 2.7 × 109 BA 9.0 × 1010 1.3 × 106 2.8 × 1010 1.1 × 1012 2.3 × 107 1.8 × 103 pCBA 1.3 × 1011 4.9 × 105 1.6 × 108 1.3 × 1012 3.1 × 107 3.2 × 108 1) 数据来源参考文献[32]. 1) Data obtained from reference[32]. -
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